Tolerance · a field manual in six instruments

Right Answers from Wrong Parts

In 1952 John von Neumann gave a set of lectures later published as Probabilistic Logics and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms from Unreliable Components. Vacuum tubes failed all the time, and he wanted to know whether you could build a machine that was more trustworthy than anything inside it.

You can, and nearly everything you rely on does. Every part here is noisy, drifting, broken, or quietly lying, and each machine still gets the right answer. Each one also has a specific way it stops working. Each one is a live instrument on its own page, so go ahead and try to break it.